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ETIOLOGY

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BIOLOGICAL

Neurobiological markers associated with the oppositional defiant disorder:

  • lower heart rate and skin conductance reactivity

  • reduced basal cortisol reactivity

  • abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex and amygdala

PSYCHOLOGICAL

Temperamental factors related to problems in emotional regulation:

  • Irritability

  • impulsivity

  • high levels of emotional reactivity

  • poor frustration tolerance

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SOCIO-CULTURAL

  • Living in particularly poor conditions where neglect or mistreatment may occur

  • Exposure to harsh, inconsistent, or neglectful child-rearing practices 

  • Abuse or neglect

  • Chaotic environment

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